On the development of a fundamental understanding of crush resistance of equestrian helmets based on experimental and finite element studies

Stoff, Jasmin ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0264-3053 2025. On the development of a fundamental understanding of crush resistance of equestrian helmets based on experimental and finite element studies. PhD Thesis, Cardiff University. Item availability restricted.

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Abstract

Horse riding is considered a high-risk activity and head injuries are common. In addition to the risk of falling, riders face the risk of being crushed under their horse. One in five of such incidents results in serious injuries. Despite this, not much work has been done to improve the crush resistance performance of equestrian helmets. Although some helmet safety standards specify a lateral rigidity test, the evidence basis behind it is unclear. Furthermore, the tested loads are much smaller than either skull fracture thresholds or estimated loads during a horse impact. This work aims to create a fundamental understanding of the crush resistance performance of equestrian helmets during a horse impact. To achieve this, helmets were tested in the laboratory according to the British safety standard PAS015:2011 and a finite element model of the helmet was developed. This model was not only validated against impact data, like previous models, but multiple quasi-static rigidity tests involving a thin flexible pressure sensor as well. Since the validity of standard crush tests has been questioned, FE horse models were created representing multiple impact locations. After validation using a cadaver study from the literature, the models were used to investigate the impact forces during a horse impact on a variety of surfaces. The risk of head injury was evaluated using a biofidelic head model. Laboratory tests revealed a 90% reduction in force on the head form by the helmet during the relatively small standard load. The FE helmet model was able to reproduce the impact force with p = 0.142, providing an upper limit of helmet performance. The horse models replicated the peak impact forces of the cadaver study with an average p value of 0.274. More compliant surfaces resulted in a reduction in the peak impact force of approximately 30%. Including a biofidelic head form increased the impact force in all scenarios. Serious head injuries were predicted for all horse impacts and wearing a helmet did not significantly reduce the risk. This work presents the first FE model of an equestrian helmet developed for crush resistance studies. The novel FE horse models allow analysis of impact parameters, that would be difficult to achieve experimentally. In addition, this thesis establishes an evidence basis for any potential future modifications to safety tests and design changes regarding the forces expected during a horse impact on the head.

Item Type:	Thesis (PhD)
Date Type:	Completion
Status:	Unpublished
Schools:	Schools > Engineering
Uncontrolled Keywords:	1. Equestrian 2. Crush resistance 3. FE helmet model 4. Large animal model 5. Safety standards 6. Helmet testing 7. Brain injury
Date of First Compliant Deposit:	2 June 2026
Last Modified:	02 Jun 2026 14:36
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/186672

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