Cool citizens? How affectively unpolarized citizens view and participate in democracy

Versteegen, Peter Luca, Phillips, Joseph B. and Mason, Lilliana 2026. Cool citizens? How affectively unpolarized citizens view and participate in democracy. Political Behavior 10.1007/s11109-026-10190-3

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Abstract

Does affective polarization change how citizens view and participate in democracy? We posit that the answer to this crucial question depends on how affectively unpolarized citizens view and participate in democracy. Yet, the most common operationalization of affective polarization––measuring sympathy ratings for one party relative to another––does not differentiate between people’s absolute sympathy ratings for the parties, which may mask essential heterogeneity among unpolarized citizens. This paper theorizes the methodological origin of this heterogeneity, describes it, and highlights its implications. Cluster analyses and regressions from three nationally representative surveys in the US provide three conclusions. First, substantial shares of the US population are affectively unpolarized. Second, unpolarized citizens cluster into two groups: one feeling lukewarm and one feeling cold toward both parties. Third, these unpolarized groups report diverging democratic attitudes and participation patterns. We discuss the methodological implications and the need for future research on affectively unpolarized citizens.

Item Type:	Article
Date Type:	Published Online
Status:	In Press
Schools:	Schools > Cardiff Law & Politics
Publisher:	Springer
ISSN:	0190-9320
Date of First Compliant Deposit:	1 September 2026
Date of Acceptance:	27 July 2026
Last Modified:	01 Sep 2026 11:15
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/189285

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