Consensus recommendations for the clinical management of Wolfram syndrome using a Delphi method

Elliott, Josephine, Ahmadi, Saumel, Yu-Wai-Man, Patrick, Gladstone, Sarah, Gebel, Stephanie, Lynch, Tracy, Barrett, Timothy, Urano, Fumihiko, International Wolfram Syndrome Clinical Guidelines Consortium and Votruba, Marcela ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7680-9135 2026. Consensus recommendations for the clinical management of Wolfram syndrome using a Delphi method. medRxiv openRxiv. 10.64898/2026.07.02.26357130

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Abstract

Background Wolfram syndrome is a rare neurodegenerative disorder, most commonly caused by pathogenic variants in WFS1, while cases due to CISD2 are exceedingly rare. The estimated prevalence is 1 in 160,000 to 770,000 individuals worldwide. In these clinical guidelines, disorders caused by WFS1 are referred to as WFS1-Wolfram syndrome, and those caused by CISD2 as CISD2-Wolfram syndrome. Historically, it has been characterized by early-onset, antibody-negative, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, progressive optic atrophy, sensorineural hearing loss, arginine vasopressin deficiency, and brainstem and cerebellar atrophy. More recently, partial and late onset forms have been identified. There are currently no licensed disease-modifying treatments, and international clinical guidelines have not previously been established. Methods An international steering committee systematically reviewed 273 peer-reviewed publications and generated draft consensus statements across six clinical domains. These statements were evaluated by international specialists in endocrinology, clinical genetics, neurology, ophthalmology and neuro-ophthalmology, psychiatry, and urology, drawn from North America, Europe, Latin America, Oceania, and Asia, using a modified three-round Delphi process. Additional feedback was incorporated from nurses specializing in multidisciplinary Wolfram syndrome care, from leaders of international patient organizations, and from specialists in the genetic diagnosis of monogenic diabetes. Structured feedback from patients and families was gathered through multiple international patient advocacy organizations. Consensus was defined as ≥80% agreement. Results All 35 final consensus statements reached the pre-specified consensus threshold of ≥80% agreement, spanning diagnosis and genetic testing, multidisciplinary care organization, neuro-ophthalmology, neurology, endocrinology, urology, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. Conclusions These guidelines are the first international clinical consensus for Wolfram syndrome and provide actionable recommendations for clinicians worldwide. Implementation should be accompanied by a prospective audit to expand the evidence base and support future iterations.

Item Type:	Working paper
Date Type:	Published Online
Status:	Submitted
Schools:	Schools > Optometry and Vision Sciences
Publisher:	openRxiv
Date of Acceptance:	2 July 2026
Last Modified:	02 Oct 2026 15:53
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/189966

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