Development and validation of the School Contexts of Outdoor Learning (SCOOL) scale

Parkin, Nicola, Hobson, Kersty ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4200-9081, Poortinga, Wouter ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6926-8545, Stead, Mark, Newth, Julia, Reeves, Jonathan, Marshall, Morgan and Gattis, Merideth ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8665-7577 2026. Development and validation of the School Contexts of Outdoor Learning (SCOOL) scale. Journal of Environmental Psychology 112 , 103034. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2026.103034

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Abstract

Time in nature has well-documented benefits for children's health, wellbeing, and cognitive and social development. Schools have the potential to offer equitable access to nature through outdoor learning, yet the roles of teachers in facilitating outdoor learning remains under-researched. This research used a sequential mixed-methods approach to develop and validate the School Contexts of Outdoor Learning (SCOOL) scale, based on an ecological model of outdoor learning. The SCOOL aims to capture enablers and barriers to outdoor learning at three levels: the individual teacher, the school environment, and national educational context. The scale development process followed the steps outlined by DeVellis and Thorpe (2021) and involved five consecutive studies. In-depth interviews with teachers (n = 25) participating in a nature connection programme were used to define key constructs (Study 1). This was followed by a short online survey with teachers (n = 125) to support item generation (Study 2i), cognitive interviews with ten teachers to test item clarity and comprehension (Study 2ii), and a review by an expert panel (n = 8) comprising academics, practitioners and third-sector representatives (Study 2iii). A final national survey with teachers across the UK (n = 516) was used to confirm the scale structure and assess its reliability and validity (Study 3). The findings demonstrate that SCOOL is a valid and reliable instrument with practical utility for evaluating and supporting outdoor learning in schools.

Item Type:	Article
Date Type:	Publication
Status:	Published
Schools:	Schools > Psychology Schools > Geography and Planning (GEOPL) Schools > Architecture
Publisher:	Elsevier
ISSN:	0272-4944
Date of First Compliant Deposit:	5 May 2026
Date of Acceptance:	12 April 2026
Last Modified:	02 Aug 2026 02:52
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/186792

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