A multi-scale evolutionary study of molecular gas in STARFORGE

Neralwar, K. R., Colombo, D., Offner, S., Karska, A., Figueira, M., Wyrowski, F., Neupane, S., Urquhart, J. S. and Duarte-Cabral, A. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5259-4774 2025. A multi-scale evolutionary study of molecular gas in STARFORGE. Astronomy & Astrophysics 704 , A38. 10.1051/0004-6361/202557095

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Abstract

Molecular clouds (MCs) are active sites of star formation in galaxies, and their formation and evolution are largely affected by stellar feedback. This includes outflows and winds from newly formed stars, radiation from young clusters, and supernova explosions. High-resolution molecular line observations allow for the identification of individual star-forming regions and the study of their integrated properties. Moreover, state-of-the-art simulations are now capable of accurately replicating the evolution of MCs, including all key stellar feedback processes. We present 13CO(2–1) synthetic observations of the STARFORGE simulations produced using the radiative transfer code RADMC-3D, matching the observational setup of the SEDIGISM survey. From these synthetic observations, we identified the population of MCs using hierarchical clustering and analysed them to provide insights into the interpretation of observed MCs as they evolve. The flux distributions of the post-processed synthetic observations and the properties of the MCs, namely, radius, mass, velocity dispersion, virial parameter, and surface density, are consistent with those of SEDIGISM. Both samples of MCs occupy the same regions in the scaling relation plots; however, the average distributions of MCs at different evolutionary stages do not overlap on the plots. This highlights the reliability of our approach in modelling SEDIGISM and suggests that MCs at different evolutionary stages contribute to the scatter in observed scaling relations. We study the trends in MC properties, morphologies, and fragmentation over time to analyse their physical structure as they form, evolve, and are destroyed. MCs appear as small diffuse cloudlets in early stages, and this is followed by their evolution to filamentary structures before being shaped by stellar feedback into 3D bubbles and getting dispersed. These trends in the observable properties of MCs are consistent with other realisations of simulations and provide strong evidence that clouds exhibit distinct morphologies over the course of their evolution.

Item Type:	Article
Date Type:	Publication
Status:	Published
Schools:	Schools > Physics and Astronomy
Publisher:	EDP Sciences
ISSN:	0004-6361
Date of First Compliant Deposit:	15 December 2025
Date of Acceptance:	8 October 2025
Last Modified:	15 Dec 2025 16:30
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/183256

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