The life-cycle carbon footprint of tall buildings: Insights from a high-density city

Li, Jinglei, Jones, Phil ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1559-8984, Hao, Tongping, Lu, Weisheng, Li, Weifeng and Huang, Jianxiang 2026. The life-cycle carbon footprint of tall buildings: Insights from a high-density city. Building and Environment 295 , 114417. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.114417

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Abstract

Tall buildings are considered carbon intensive to construct and operate. They can, however, accommodate destinations in close proximity and reduce emissions from transportation. Such trade-off was insufficiently understood in research literature, while policy makers debate whether tall buildings in their urban context are conducive or detrimental to carbon saving goals. This study aims to test the relationship between building height and life-cycle carbon footprint, drawing evidence from Hong Kong, which has many tall buildings. The life-cycle carbon for the city’s 172,530 buildings was computed using simulation models and a machine learning algorithm; the results were cross-checked against metered energy consumption data. Transportation carbon was estimated using travel behavior data and carbon auditing reports. Emissions from consumer goods were estimated using official reports. Urban context, such as density, land use, street network, etc., were computed from geo-spatial databases; Socio-demographic attributes were obtained from census data and used as controls. The above datasets were aggregated into the city’s 1,622 street blocks and 209 Tertiary Planning Units. Regression models were used to identify the independent association between building height and carbon emissions. Results suggest that tall buildings, in general, are associated with low emissions per capita or per floor area. Yet such benefit diminishes when building height exceeds 36–55 m, or 10–15 storeys. The transport-related carbon savings from super-tall buildings are offset by excessive building emissions. The findings are consistent at both street block and TPU levels, after controlling urban context and socio-demographic factors. Implications for low-carbon policies regarding building height limits are discussed.

Item Type:	Article
Date Type:	Publication
Status:	Published
Schools:	Schools > Architecture
Publisher:	Elsevier BV
ISSN:	0360-1323
Date of Acceptance:	24 February 2026
Last Modified:	09 Mar 2026 11:01
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/185584

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