A survey of large language models: evolution, architectures, adaptation, benchmarking, applications, challenges, and societal implications

Sajjadi Mohammadabadi, Seyed Mahmoud, Kara, Burak Cem, Eyupoglu, Can, Uzay, Can, Tosun, Mehmet Serkan and Karakuş, Oktay ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8009-9319 2025. A survey of large language models: evolution, architectures, adaptation, benchmarking, applications, challenges, and societal implications. Electronics 14 (18) , 3580. 10.3390/electronics14183580

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Abstract

This survey provides an in-depth review of large language models (LLMs), highlighting the significant paradigm shift they represent in artificial intelligence. Our purpose is to consolidate state-of-the-art advances in LLM design, training, adaptation, evaluation, and application for both researchers and practitioners. To accomplish this, we trace the evolution of language models and describe core approaches, including parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT). The methodology involves a thorough survey of real-world LLM applications across the scientific, engineering, healthcare, and creative sectors, coupled with a review of current benchmarks. Our findings indicate that high training and inference costs are shaping market structures, raising economic and labor concerns, while also underscoring a persistent need for human oversight in assessment. Key trends include the development of unified multimodal architectures capable of processing varied data inputs and the emergence of agentic systems that exhibit complex behaviors such as tool use and planning. We identify critical open problems, such as detectability, data contamination, generalization, and benchmark diversity. Ultimately, we conclude that overcoming these complex technical, economic, and social challenges necessitates collaborative advancements in adaptation, evaluation, infrastructure, and governance.

Item Type:	Article
Date Type:	Published Online
Status:	Published
Schools:	Schools > Computer Science & Informatics
Additional Information:	License information from Publisher: LICENSE 1: URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Start Date: 2025-09-09
Publisher:	MDPI
Date of First Compliant Deposit:	24 September 2025
Date of Acceptance:	27 August 2025
Last Modified:	24 Sep 2025 08:15
URI:	https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/181299

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